The Evolution of Hinduism: From Ancient India to Modern Practices

17th September 2025

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Introduction: Understanding the Journey of Hinduism

Hinduism, also known as Sanatana Dharma, is the oldest religion in the world. It is mainly followed in the countries of India and Nepal, but also has a high presence in countries like Sri Lanka, Mauritius, Bhutan, Fiji, Bangladesh, Guyana, and Trinidad & Tobago. Hinduism can trace its roots back at least 5000 years, right from the Indus Valley Civilization. The religion has evolved over the past five millennia and still continues to change and evolve. This blog gives a brief study of the evolution of Hinduism from the Harappan culture to the 21st century.

Roots in the Indus Valley Civilization (c.3000-1800 BCE)

The earliest trace of the religion can be found in the Indus Valley. Although the Indus script has not been deciphered as of yet, archaeological findings show worship of natural spirits known as Yakshas, which later formed part of the Hindu legends. Also, sites for ritualistic bathing and an early form of meditation have been found, which would later evolve into Yoga. Also, the Pashupati seat found in the Mohenjo-Daro excavation sites gives an impression of the earliest form of Lord Shiva, the Hindu God of Destruction. Also, the holy symbols like the Swastika have been found, which is dated to be around 5500 years old. The Indus Valley religion naturally developed into the Vedic religion, later around 2000-1500 BCE.

The Vedic Age and the Rise of the Early Rituals (c. 1800-1200 BCE)

The Vedic era began around 2000-1800 BCE, when a branch of the Proto-Indo-Iranian tribe migrated to India and assimilated with the people of the Indus Valley Civilization, thereby creating a synchronized religion formed by the amalgamation of both cultures. Thus, the new religion had the characteristics of both sides- like the nature worship and the fire sacrifices of the Proto-Indo-Iranians and the concepts of altar making and meditation from the Harrappan culture. Finally, with the formation of the new religion, one of the earliest texts of mankind, the Rig Veda, was compiled around 1500 BCE in Vedic Sanskrit. The text talks about the nature, the Gods representing the nature, their stories, the hymns about those gods, the rituals, and many more. It also has two of the earliest known philosophical concepts, known in the form of the Nasadiya Sukta and the Purusha Sukta. The Nasaadiya Sukta questions the existence of man, the nature, the universe, and even the existence of Gods. It’s one of the world’s first agnostic scriptures, which questions everything around itself. The Purusha Sukta gives the base of Hindu Cosmology by stating how the universe is a form of an eternal being, showing the pinnacle of early human imagination. Around 1300 to 1000 BCE, the other three Vedas, namely the Yajur, the Sama, and the Atharva, were compiled. The Yajur Veda is a manual for the rituals mentioned in the Rig Veda. It describes the process or system through which the rituals should be done. The Sama Veda is the book containing songs in praise of the deities. It is the only Veda that is sung and not read, and forms the basis of Indian Classical Music today. The Atharva Veda is about the esoteric practices dealing with domestic spells related to giving boons and removing curses. It also states some of the earliest tricks and magics known to mankind.

The Upanishadic Shift: From Ritual to Philosophy (c. 1200-500 BCE)

Around the latter half of the Vedic Period, the sages and scholars began to question the rituals and sacrifices, and began to think about the individual self, its relationship with its surroundings, and the cosmic reality. From these Philosophical thoughts rose the core texts of Hindu Philosophy – the Upanishads. The Upanishads form the fourth section of each of the Vedas, the other three being the Samhitas, the Brahmanas, and the Aranyakas- all dealing with some aspects of the ritualistic worship. The Upanishads, on the other hand, were formed as a critical commentary on the previous portions. Traditionally, it is considered that there are 108 Upanishads, although academically, the number may be higher. Out of these, 10 to 13 Upanishads are considered to be the Principal Upanishads, which were the earliest ones and dealt with concepts like soul, subtle body, sense organs, stages of reality, etc. Unlike the previous three parts, which became insignificant over time, the Upanishads maintain their significance even today.

Epic Age: Ramayana, Mahabharata, and the Bhagavad Gita (c. 800-300 BCE)

Around the first millennium BCE, two epic poems were written in the form of the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. Although the original stories are considered to have passed on from a much earlier time, their present form is considered to have been finalized after the Persian, Greek, and Scythian contacts with India, as some parts of the epics mention them. The language also varies highly, with some parts having a more Vedic Sanskrit flavour, while the rest have a Classical Sanskrit texture. These suggest that the original stories may have been from the later part of the Vedic Era, but slowly evolved as they passed from mouth to mouth over the centuries, and were finally written on manuscripts around 500-300 BCE. The Bhagavad Gita is a small portion with 700 verses within the epic of the Mahabharata, with 96,000 verses. The scripture is considered the holiest scripture of Hinduism, right after the Vedas. In the Bhagavad Gita, Prince Arjuna is given wisdom from the Upanishads by his charioteer, Lord Krishna, the 8th avatar of Lord Vishnu. The text contains knowledge such as how to work without attachment or detachment, how to devote completely to the creator, how to differentiate between right and wrong, and much more.

Philosophical and Puranic Hinduism (c.500 BCE -1300 CE)

After the latter half of the first millennium BCE, the precedence within the Hindu Pantheon began to shift. Earlier Vedic deities like Indira, Varuna, Yama, and Kubera, representing aspects like Rain, Water, Death, and Wealth, were superseded by the Gods like Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva, and Shakti, who represented deeper philosophical concepts like creation and matter, preservation and space, destruction and time, and protection and energy. So, stories began to form around 300 BCE till 1000 CE, called the Puranas, which formed the basis of the Hindu Mythology. During that time, large temples were constructed dedicated to the above-mentioned deities. Apart from mythological structure, this age also created a structure for Indian Philosophy. The Indian Philosophy got divided into 6 Astika Schools (Orthodox) and 3 Nastika Schools (Heterodox). The orthodox schools of Sankhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Mimamsa, and Vedanta accepted the Vedas as the highest spiritual authority, while the heterodox schools of Jainism, Buddhism, and Charvaka rejected the Vedas. Around 7-8th century CE, when Buddhism was becoming the prevalent religion in India, the Hindu Renaissance emerged with the arrival of great Hindu Philosophers like Adi Shankaracharya (8th century CE), Ramanujacharya (11th century CE), and Madhvacharya (13th century CE), who battled the Buddhists with words in debates, and led to the re-emergence of the Hindu Population in India.

Hinduism under Medieval India: Challenges and Movements (c. 1100-1800 CE)

India came under foreign Islamic rule at the beginning of the 13th century. This resulted in the persecution of Hindus and their beliefs, which were considered pagan and sinful by the rulers. The Hindu locals also resisted and evolved their religion in accordance with time. This led to changes in the theology of both religions. A new group of Saints came up from both religions, leading to movements called the Bhakti and the Sufi Movements. Both movements got influenced by each other and exchanged thoughts, and propagated that God is one. Important Bhakti saints include Sant Jnaneshwar (13th century), Sant Kabir Das (15th century), Mira Bai (16th century), Guru Nanak (16th century, the founder of Sikhism), Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (16th century), and Goswami Tulsidas (16th century). Important Sufi Saints include Khwaja Moinuddin Chisti (12th Century), Nizamuddin Auliya (13th century), and Amir Khusro(13th century).

Colonial Encounters to Modern Times (c.1700-present)

The Europeans first came to India via sea at the end of the 15th century, but the surge in the arrivals of Europeans came in the 1700s. After the Battle of Plassey in 1757 and the Battle of Buxar in 1764, the British East India Company consolidated its colonial rule over India. By 1848, most of India was under the Company rule. After the First War of Independence in 1857, the British Crown took direct power over India from the company and ruled till 15th August, 1947. So, within this span of nearly 200 years, the evolution of Hinduism took a unique turn. There were two major directions that the evolution divided- the reformists and the revivalists. The reformists embedded logical foreign concepts and rejected the social evils that were beginning to manifest within Hinduism. Thus, they incorporated universal thoughts within the dharmic structure. Examples include Brahma Samaj(1828) by Raja Ram Mohan Roy. The revivalists took an opposite turn; they rejected the impurities within the social structure and formed a custom that was analogous to Vedic times, without social evils. Examples include Arya Samaj(1875) by Swami Dayanand Saraswati. Both movements challenged the growing social evils in the culture, which weren’t present in ancient times, like the rigid caste system and burning of widows, which became prominent after 500 CE and 1500 CE. Both movements encouraged education for all irrespective of caste and gender, although in their own different ways, the former encouraged the European system of education, while the latter wanted the Ancient Vedic system of education. Among these movements and the resistances, many spiritually enlightened people took birth in India, like Ramakrishna Paramahamsa (b.1836), Swami Vivekananda (b.1863), Ramana Maharshi(1879), Paramahamsa Yogananda (b.1893), and many more. They taught their spiritual wisdom to the common folk and also spread the knowledge of Hinduism to the outside world. After India gained independence in 1947, a new wave of spiritual leaders emerged who spread the religious teachings to the common folks of independent India. Some of the greatest contributors to Hinduism after independence include Srila Prabhupada (b.1896), Swami Chinmayananda (b.1916), and Mahesh Yogi(b.1918). Thus, Hinduism, through a span of five millennia, evolved from the Indus Valley to the modern stage.

Conclusion: A living, Evolving Religion

Hinduism, as the oldest living religion, still survives because it never took a solid, rigid form; it has always flowed like a liquid and taken the form of the container where it is kept, whether it was the Buddhist scholars, Islamic rulers, Christian colonizers, or modern Atheist protesters, Hinduism has always changed its form based on the situation, without forming any rigid doctrine, and still continues to grow as a living and breathing religion. That’s all for this blog. Please like, comment, and share if you find this interesting.