Introduction
Since the time of cognitive evolution, humans have continually sought reasons for our existence and our surroundings. As a result, our ancestors developed their own metaphysics, cosmology, and the concept of God based on their cultural surroundings. In Indian civilization, the people slowly developed a unique way of understanding the divine creation, which is very different from the Abrahamic traditions more popular in the West. A verse from the Ṛgveda, the earliest known scripture of India, beautifully captures the Indian way of thought and the freedom of thought. It quotes, “ekam sat viprā bahudā vadanti,” which translates to “Truth is one, but the wise call it by various names.” All the traditions of India that emerged later, fully or partially, were inspired by this very verse, which led to a diverse understanding of the truth and the path for finding the truth. In this blog, we discuss the most important 20 philosophical thoughts and traditions that emerged in the Indian civilization through the lens of how they view the concept of God and the universe. This blog doesn’t intend to give any judgment on which path is superior, as ultimately all path ultimately leads to the same truth, with the right intention. This blog can be considered an introductory article for understanding the Indian philosophical school, without going deeper into any, as it’s nearly impossible to give detailed information on every school in a single blog. Most schools are arranged in a chronological order, except for a few exceptions for better comparative understanding. So let’s begin.
1. Cārvāka (Lokāyata)
The Cārvāka school is one of the earliest philosophical schools in India. They are the ultimate materialists. According to them, there is no God, and no individual or collective consciousness (ātman & brahman), and no transcendental principle. According to them, only matter exists, and reality is composed of four elements (earth, water, fire, air). They reject any form of scripture and give priority to only perception (pratyakṣa) as valid knowledge. They don’t believe in any form of karma, rebirth, heaven, or liberation. They are radical atheist who believe ethics is pragmatic, and not cosmic.
2. Sāṃkhya-Yoga
The Sāṃkhya and Yoga were separate philosophical traditions with a lot of similarities and shared doctrines. They slowly merged such that in today’s world, it’s impossible to study or follow one without studying the other. Both schools are dualistic, and according to their metaphysics, reality is composed of Puruṣa (pure, passive, multiple, eternal consciousness) & Prakṛti (primordial, active, unconscious matter). Sāṃkhya believes in no God, while Yoga believes in Īśvara (personal God – who is not a creator God but a special Puruṣa, unaffected by karma and suffering, who is an idle object for meditation). Both schools believe liberation comes from discriminative knowledge between Puruṣa & Prakṛti. According to them, reality is made up of 25 tattvas (elements) like intellect, ego, senses, and natural elements. Thus, both schools describe reality without a creator God, treating liberation as a psychological-metaphysical separation.
3. Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika
They are twin schools, which originally started as separate schools during the Axial Age, but were merged millennia later around the 10th-13th century CE. Both schools are pluralistic and believe in many consciousnesses (ātman) and many substances. They accept a personal God (Īśvara) as an intelligent ordering principle. They believe God is not the material cause but the efficient cause of the universe. The Nyāya school is the school of logic, which believes in four means of knowledge: perception, inference, comparison, and testimony. They believe God’s existence is established through inference and not through revelation alone. They also believe rational argument is central and more important than faith. According to Vaiśeṣika ontology, the universe is composed of eternal atoms (earth, water, fire, air), which are arranged by Īśvara according to karma, and suffering comes from karma alone, not any divine will. Both the schools present a rational theism where God is an architect and moral governor, who is discovered through logic rather than mystical insight.
4. Mīmāṃsā (Pūrva Mīmāṃsā)
The Mīmāṃsā scholars believe that no creator God is required to explain the universe, and reality is governed by dharma or righteous duty. They believe the Vedas are authorless and eternal. The Gods mentioned in the Vedas are considered by them as functional entities, invoked through ritual, not supreme creators. According to their cosmology, the universe is beginningless, and ritual action itself produces results through an unseen potency (apūrva), not divine intervention. They give more preference to the verbal testimony (śabda) of the Vedas over perception and inference. Mīmāṃsā presents a ritual-centered, non-theistic worldview, where cosmic order functions without a supreme God.
5. Advaita Vedānta
According to Advaita Vedānta, only Brahman (infinite, changeless, non-dual consciousness) is real, while the world is mithyā, i.e, dependent and provisional. According to them, the individual soul (ātman) is the same as the eternal soul (brahman). They believe in Īśvara (personal God), who exists at the empirical level, and is actually Brahman reflected through māyā (cosmic illusion or ignorance). They believe the universe appears through māyā and is not a real creation but a mere manifestation, as the only truth, i.e., Brahman itself does not change or act. Epistemologically, they believe liberation comes through direct, non-dual insight or knowledge (jñāna) that removes ignorance, rather than through any ritual or belief. They give importance to the teachings of the Upaniṣads (the fourth and the last section of the Vedas) that help in attaining jñāna. In short, Advaita Vedānta presents God as ultimately impersonal and non-dual, with the personal God serving as a pedagogical reality within ignorance.
6. Viśiṣṭādvaita Vedānta
According to Viśiṣṭādvaita Vedānta, Brahman is personal and identified with Viṣṇu/Nārāyaṇa. God is considered as one, and consciousness (cit) and matter (acit) are real and dependent attributes of God. For them, the world is real, and not illusory. Their God, unlike that of Advaitins, possesses infinite auspicious qualities, and ātmans are modes (prakāra) of Brahman, not identical to him. Their cosmology shows the universe existing as God’s body, and creation as a real transformation of God’s power. For Viśiṣṭādvaitins, knowledge is important, but devotion (bhakti) and grace are central. Complete surrender (prapatti) leads to liberation. Viśiṣṭādvaita presents God as a personal, all-compassing reality, where unity and difference coexist without illusion.
7. Dvaita Vedānta
This is a dualistic school and tradition that considers reality as irreducibly dualistic. In Dvaita Vedānta, the God (Viṣṇu), individual consciousnesses, and matter are eternally distinct. The difference (bheda) is real, and neither provisional nor illusory, like the previously mentioned two schools. To them, God is supreme, independent (svatantra), and personal. Consciousnesses and matter are dependent realities (paratantra). They consider five real distinctions or pañcabheda. They are: God-consciousness, God-matter, consciousness-consciousness, consciousness-matter, matter-matter. These differences persist even after liberation. Dvaitins also believe liberation leads to eternal proximity to God, and not union. Dvaita presents God as a supreme, personal ruler, eternally distinct from anything else, rejecting all forms of non-dual identity.
8. Dvaitādvaita Vedānta
According to them, reality is characterized by both difference and non-difference. To them, Brahman (Kṛṣṇa/Rādhā) is the supreme reality, and consciousness and the world are distinct yet inseparable from God. God is seen as personal, loving, and relational, and is considered the cause, sustainer, and inner controller of the universe. Both knowledge and devotion together are seen as the means of liberation, with special importance given to bhakti for Kṛṣṇa. Dvaitādvaita portrays God as a unity that naturally includes differences, avoiding both absolute identity and absolute separation.
9. Śuddhādvaita Vedānta
According to Śuddhādvaita Vedānta, Brahman alone exists, but unlike Advaita, the world is fully real. Brahman manifests the universe without losing perfection. God is seen as Śrī Kṛṣṇa, the complete and joyful Brahman, and the world is a real expression of divine play (līlā). According to them, liberation is achieved through Bhakti and loving participation in God’s līlā. This school presents God as pure, joyful reality, where the world is not a problem to escape, but a divine expression to be embraced.
10. Acintya Bhedābheda
The last of the Vedānta schools, Acintya Bhedābheda, believes reality is simultaneously one and different, in a way that is acintya (inconceivable to logic). They consider Kṛṣṇa as the supreme personal manifestation. God is personal, relational, and supreme, with all his energy (śaktis) manifesting both the world and the individual consciousnesses. They consider creation as purposeful and not illusory. According to this school, pure bhakti is the highest means to reach liberation. Acintya Bhedābheda presents God as a personal absolute, whose unity with the world and various consciousnesses transcends human logic rather than denying it.
11. Pāśupata Śaivism
It is a school or tradition where Śiva, in the form of Paśupati, is seen as the supreme, eternal God. He is completely distinct from consciousnesses (paśu) and the world. Pāśupata Śaivism defines reality as fundamentally theistic and dualistic. God is omnipotent, independent, and the giver of liberation. It is grace, not knowledge, which leads to complete freedom. According to them, the consciousnesses are bound by impurities (pāśa). Mokṣa or liberation here is seen as release from bondage, and not identity with God. Consciousnesses remain eternally distinct, but free and blissful. Pāśupata Śaivism presents God as a sovereign Lord, where liberation depends on divine grace rather than metaphysical identity.
12. Śaiva Siddhānta
This is another śaiva school whose metaphysics is structured around three categories- Pati (Lord Śiva), Paśu (individual consciousness), and Pāśa (impurities like karma, māyā, and other impurities), and all three are real and distinct. Śiva is seen as the supreme personal God, both transcendental and immanent. He is the effective cause, not the material substance of the universe. Emphasis is given on ritual devotion (kriyā), ethics (caryā), and spiritual knowledge (jñāna). Mokṣa or liberation in this school refers to union without identity, where souls attain Śiva-like bliss but do not become Śiva themselves. Śaiva Siddhānta, in short, envisions God as a personal, liberating Lord, balancing devotion, ritual, and metaphysical realism.
13. Kashmir Śaivism (Trika)
This is a non-dual śaiva school, which considers Śiva to be the only consciousness, and the reality is dynamic, not static. God is considered to be Śiva-Śakti, the inseparable consciousness and power. According to their metaphysics, the universe consists of 36 tattvas (elements or levels of reality). Māyā is not considered an illusion but rather the self-limitation of consciousness. According to them, knowledge arises through direct recognition (pratyabhijñā), and Mokṣa or liberation occurs by recognizing oneself as Śiva. Kashmir Śaivism presents God as living consciousness, where realizing God means recognizing the divine nature of one’s own awareness.
14. Śākta Tantra
In this school, the ultimate reality is seen as Śakti, the Divine Mother, the dynamic power of existence. Śiva without Śakti is considered inert, while Śakti without Śiva is considered inconceivable. The reality is seen as non-dual, experiential, and embodied. The Divine Mother is worshiped in various forms: Kālī, Tārā, Tripurasundarī, etc. According to Tantra cosmology, the universe emerges from Śakti’s vibration, the creation is cyclical, sacred, and alive, and matter is not considered inferior to spirit. Śākta Tantra epistemology considers knowledge as something that comes from direct experience, and not the denial of life. Their practices include mantras (sacred sounds), yantras (sacred diagrams), ritual, and inner discipline. One attains mokṣa or liberation after recognizing oneself with Śakti. Śākta Tantra sees the Goddess as the immanent power, where divinity is encountered through experience, embodiment, and disciplined awareness.
15. Jainism
Jainism is a non-theistic school and tradition, which is nowhere near materialism. According to them, reality consists ofjīva (conscious souls) and ajīva (non-conscious matter, time, space, motion, rest), and there is no creator God. By “God”, they refer to liberated souls known as Tīrthankaras, and not a creator. They are perfected souls possessing infinite knowledge, perception, bliss, and energy. The universe is considered beginningless and eternal. It operates through natural laws and karma, with no divine intervention. Jains emphasizeahiṃsā (non-violence), ascetism, knowledge, and right conduct. According to Jainism,mokṣa is the complete isolation of the soul from matter, after which the liberated soul attains a higher plane called Siddha-loka and is beyond rebirth. Jainism replaces God with moral law and self-effort, making liberation a consequence of discipline rather than grace.
16. Theravāda Buddhism
It is the earliest known Buddhist school. The school rejects a creator God. Gods (devas) may exist, but they are impermanent and non-liberating. According to Theravadins, reality is impermanent with no permanent self (anātman), and existence is structured through dependent origination (pratītyasamupāda). Theravāda Buddhism considers the universe as cyclic and is governed by karma and causality, with multiple realms of existence and no cosmic designer. They emphasize knowledge gained through direct insight into impermanence, suffering, and non-self. Liberation or Nirvāṇa is discovered through attaining knowledge, accompanied by monastic discipline, meditation, and ethical conduct. Theravāda removes God entirely from metaphysics, placing causality and insight at the center of liberation.
17. Madhyamaka
Madhyamaka is a Buddhist school that emphasizes emptiness. According to them, all phenomena are empty (śūnya) of inherent existence. Emptiness does not mean nothingness, but dependence itself, rejecting all metaphysical absolutes. They don’t believe in any creator God or metaphysical ground, and even nirvāṇa is empty of inherent essence. They use radical dialectical reasoning to dissolve views, thereby following the middle way, avoiding both eternalism and nihilism. They consider liberation as the state of attaining freedom from all fixed views. Madhyamaka dismantles the very idea of God as an ultimate entity, replacing it with relational emptiness.
18. Yogācāra (Vijñānavāda / Cittamātra)
Yogācāra is the Buddhist school that suggests reality is mind-only (citta-mātra), with external objects having no independent existence apart from consciousness, and experience arises from layered mental processes. They don’t believe in a creator God or a supreme being, and the ultimate reality is purified consciousness, not a deity. According to Yogācāra, the world arises from storehouse consciousness (ālaya-vijñāna), with karma as preserved mental seeds. Cosmos is psychological rather than material. According to this school, liberation occurs through transforming consciousness with meditation and ethical cultivation. Yogācāra replaces God with mind itself, making consciousness the source of the world and liberation.
19. Vajrayāna Buddhism
Mostly followed in Northern India, Nepal, Bhutan, Tibet, and Mongolia, Vajrāyana Buddhism states that the ultimate reality is non-dual awarteness, inseparable from emptiness. According to the school, Buddhahood is inherent but obscured, and Samsāra (existence) and Nirvāṇa (liberation) share the same ground or plane. They believe in no creator God, while deities (yidams) are symbolic manifestations of the awakened mind. They view the universe as the sacred geography, mirroring inner mental structures. Practitioners of Vajrāyana use mantra (sacred sounds), mudrā (hand signs), and various tantric methods, with the direct aim of rapid realization. In this school, the Guru (teacher) is considered very essential as a living transmission. Through tantric practices, including proper usage of body, speech, and mind, enlightenment is possible within a single lifetime. Vajrāyana treats deities as skillful means, turning symbolism into a direct path of awakening.
20. Sikhism
One of the two youngest philosophies of the list (the other being Acintya Bhedābheda), Sikhism believes the ultimate reality is Ik Oṅkār, i.e., one, singular, all-pervading reality. They believe God is transcendent and immanent, the reality is non-dual, but creation is real. They consider God as both nirguṇ (without form or attributes) and saguṇ (with attributes), although God does not incarnate in human form. According to their custom, personal devotion to God is central, but God is beyond anthropomorphism. According to their cosmology, the universe is created and sustained by divine will (hukam), and creation is meaningful and structured with no illusionism. Ethical practice includes emphasis on nāma simaraṇ (remembrance of God), honest work, and service (seva). The tradition rejects ritualism and ascetism, and liberation or mukti is considered as freedom from ego and separation, not escape from the world. Sikhism presents God as one universal reality, accessible through devotion, ethics, and grace rather than metaphysical speculation.
Conclusion
This blog is written with the intention of giving a short introduction to the metaphysics, cosmology, ethics, and epistemology of nearly all core Indian philosophical and spiritual schools. I have tried to make the blog as unbiased and respectful as humanly possible. As per the Ṛgvedic verse mentioned in the intro, they are all interpreting the same truth in their very own way, so any form of negative comparison is ethically unjust. This blog was also written to show the spiritual diversity in India, which is mostly unknown not only to foreigners, but also to many Indians themselves. That is all for this blog. I know the blog was a bit long, in fact, my longest blog till now. Sorry for that, but I couldn’t make it shorter without avoiding any important school or principle. I feel they are all equally important with no hierarchy of importance. Hope you enjoyed the read. Do like, comment, and share if you feel so; this will encourage me to study and write more such blogs on philosophy, science, and other ideas. And also subscribe to my newsletter via email if you want to get notified for future blogs and updates. Thank you.
Suggested Readings
- A History of Indian Philosophy Vol. I by Prof. SN Dasgupta
- A History of Indian Philosophy Vol. 2 by Prof SN Dasgupta
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